The historical development of mass, a lecture held by p. Andreas Rupprecht, the student priest at NUK. Thank you, p. Andreas!
(studentlaget Trondheim 04.02.09)

Our liturgical rites have a long tradition. It can be recognized everywhere, and this is part of what makes it catholic (universal). At the same time, it has not always been like that, but it has developed through the centuries, and it has also a local colouring both the individual church/community and the diocese or cultural region.

Even though it is called the Roman rite, it has taken elements from all over the world.
The uniformity it has developed, was originally put on it by the Emperor Charles the Great. There are only two different liturgies today that have survived in Western Europe beside the Roman one, which can be found in Milan and in Toledo.
But even after the Karolingian time different rites developed, and it was the Tridentine
Council that tried to straighten it again. This one remained fairly unchanged until the 20th  century, when the 2nd Vatican Council reformed it again.

I believe that this mirrors the tension between having a form of celebration that is above human creation and the urge to understand what is celebrated at any time and at any place.
So, just think a moment about what you remember from the place you grew up, or what you have experienced at different places you have been. Do you felt at home? Was it strange? Did the differences you may have experienced say something to you?

As a source, I take Per Bjørn Halvorsen OP’s (+ 2007) book Jesu Nattverd, 1989.
The mass starts with the entrance procession, since the 8th century followed by the introitus, a psalm with antiphon (like a folksong), or a modern hymn. The priest kisses the altar. This is a sign of reverence, since the classical era. If incense is used, the altar and the cross are incensed, again a sign of reverence, but more a Greek/Roman custom than in the biblical sense. Originally it was a pagan custom and came in use only later.

The priest’s vestments are of the liturgical colour: white for solemnities: Easter and Christmas, saints who are not martyrs, red for Pentecost, Christ’s sufferings (Palm Sunday, Good Friday), martyrs violet (purple) for penance and preparation: advent and lent, but often also for requiem masses and funerals instead of black, and green for ordinary Sundays.

The priest goes to his seat which historically should be placed at the wall, preferably right behind the altar, like in a classical basilica, but this often collides with the position of the high altar. He makes the sign of the cross, the old Christian symbol, and greets in the liturgical form: The Lord be with you. A bishop greets: Peace be with you, which is taken from the gospel of St John). Both greetings indicate that Christ is present where two or three are gathered in his name.

The confession rite was originally the priest’s private preparation, but the need for confession or reconciliation for everybody is already mentioned in the Didache at the end of 1st century.
The Kyrie has a strange history. Originally there was a litany at the beginning of the mass, which still can be found in the Byzantine liturgy. In the 4th century the Kyrie was added at the beginning and the end of the litany, but in the 7th century, the litany was already gone and the Kyrie stood alone. So in today’s form it stands without meaning. It can be omitted if it used in the confession rite, which is not very common in Norway.

The Glory dates back to the 4th century and is of oriental origin. It is not used on weekdays, memorials, in advent or lent. This seems to represent penitential character, but this would be historically wrong, because all Sundays are a celebration of Easter. It is more that the Glory was originally only used when a bishop celebrated mass, and those traditions were kept stricter during those special liturgical times, but it found its way in on other Sundays and Feast days, even when no bishop was present.

The same can be said about the Hallelujah, which originally was used only during Easter time, and maybe only on Easter Day. And the opening rite of Good Friday’s liturgy (the priest lays down in front of the altar as a sign of reverence, and then starts with the prayer of the day) shows the original opening of the mass that dates back to the 2nd century.

The prayer of the day – or collecta in Latin – should collect the prayer of all the faithful present. All this so far are only introductory rites that came into the liturgy during the centuries. Originally, mass started with reading from the Word of God. The Roman Missal states that God is present among the faithful in his Word, something that often had been forgotten in catholic tradition in favour of His presence in bread and wine. The 2nd Vatican Council cites that He is most present in bread and wine, but this implies also a presence in another form.

The readings are taken
1. from the Old Testament (during Easter time from the Acts of the Apostles)
2. from the letters of the apostles
3. from the gospel
This order reflects the traditional understanding that the Old Testament is prophecy of and preparation for the coming of the Christ, driven by the Holy Spirit. God speaks more directly through the apostles, and the most through Jesus’ own words in the Gospel. Therefore the book that contains the Gospel is being placed on the altar since the 8th century. The 2nd Vatican Council wished that all important texts should be read during liturgy within a certain period. This resulted in a three-years cycle for Sunday readings, and two years for weekdays.

Between the 1st and 2nd reading a psalm is sung, and between the 2nd reading and the gospel, the Hallelujah is sung with a verse, preferably from the Gospel. Only during Lent the Halleluja is omitted, as mentioned earlier. The Gospel book is brought in in a procession ceremony, with candles and incense, and the priest kisses the book, again as a sign of reverence.

The sermon is part of the liturgy, something that had been neglected, especially during the middle ages – which made Dominicus found his Preaching Order – and it should be held not only on Sundays but also on weekdays, especially during advent, lent and Easter time. But it does not have the central position as in the Lutheran liturgy, because in catholic tradition, God’s Word speaks for itself.

On Sundays and Solemnities, the profession of faith follows, usually the Nicaean creed, but the Apostolic Creed can be used also – which for example is the more common case in Germany. Again, the fact that it is not used every time implies that it is not an original part of the mass, but in fact only came during the 11th century from the Spanish liturgy. On Christmas and on the Annunciation of the Lord, everybody should kneel down during the words “He became incarnate”.

The intercession has been re-emphasized by the Council. Their use dates back to the 2nd century, but they vanished during the middle ages, mainly for practical reasons. This was because they were not pre-formulated, and priests have not always been too creative or were not so educated. So we have to take care that that won’t happen again, because that would be against the councils ideas.
It is the only place during the mass where it is not the priest who prays on behalf of the people. In today’s liturgy the intercessions mark the end of the first part, the liturgy of the word, but originally it was the beginning of the Eucharistic part.

In the 2nd centuries liturgy, also the kiss of peace as a symbol of reconciliation was exchanged before the intercessions. The Eucharist is structured in the same way as Christ is said to have done:
1. preparation of the gifts,
2. Eucharistic prayer (a prayer of thanksgiving to God for salvation and the consecration of bread and wine),
3. breaking of bread and communion.

First, the altar is prepared. The altar was originally naked until then – like it is still in Good Friday’s liturgy. The altar is a symbol for Christ himself, and the old church would have seen it as a blasphemy to put candles and flowers on it. The liturgical rules state that candles can be set at the side of the altar, too, which would be more in correspondence with the old church’s tradition, but flowers should not be.
It is also emphasized that the liturgical gifts should be brought to the priest in a procession by the faithful, together with their gifts which today usually is the collection. Originally also the celebrants (the bishop and the priests) brought their shares of bread and wine.

After the preparation of the gifts, the altar, bread and wine, the cross, the priest and the people are being incensed. The altar for the above mentioned reasons, likewise bread and wine and the cross, the priest because he acts in Christ’s place, and the people because they represent the body of Christ. Afterwards the celebrant washes his hands. This rite has got a spiritual meaning of cleansing oneself, but originally it was just practical after handling the people’s gifts. The offering ends with the priest’s invitation to pray.

The Roman missal call everybody to rise to the prayer and to remain standing until the end of the mass. This is in accordance with tradition, because in the old church, the faithful remained standing with raised hands, while penitents kneeled at the entrance. To kneel during Sanctus and the Eucharistic prayer is not in accordance with tradition, especially not on Sundays and on Easter. This was already forbidden by the Nicaean council in the 4th century.

The Eucharistic prayer that follows is the highlight of the mass, not only consecration and elevation, but the whole prayer. The introduction dialogue (The Lord be with you) can be dated back to the earliest Christian times. The priest repeats the last words of this dialogue and prays a prayer of thanksgiving – this is the meaning of the word “Eucharist”.

The first part is called “preface”, which should be translated as “proclamation”. Then the “Sanctus” is everybody’s “acclamation” to it. The “Sanctus” was very early imported from Alexandria. There are about 140 different prefaces in the revised missal, along with 4 canons (Eucharistic prayers). The fact that there are so many different prefaces indicate that this part was originally a free prayer. The 1st of the Eucharistic prayers is the old Roman canon which had been the only one for a
long time. The 2nd one is taken from Hippolyts liturgy, the 3rd one is a new composition, and the 4th follows the Byzantine anafora.

In many countries there can be found more, for example the 4 Eucharistic prayers for masses with special intentions, 2 for reconciliation and 3 for masses with children.
After the “Sanctus” follow: the epiclesis, the calling of the Spirit on the gifts, the words on institution and consecration. the anamnesis, the remembrance of salvation, which in Jewish interpretation means not only something past, but an actualization, and if the church so follows Christ’s call, he will be present, and the offer takes place here and now.

The intercessions are so a doubling of the first intercession, originally a long list of names and the final praise, the doxology. The breaking of the bread and communion begin since Gregor the Great with the Lord’s prayer, the Our Father. He thought that if a prayer composed by man is spoken at the altar, so should also the Our Father be spoken there. It is followed by the embolism, a “throw-in” that extends the Our Father. It is thrown in before the doxology, which itself is an extension that cannot be found in the oldest versions of the gospel.

The prayer for peace is, apart from Kyrie and Glory, the only one that is directed to the son. The sign of peace that follows, had also vanished from liturgy and has been reintroduced. The breaking of the bread has been reduced to nearly a symbolic rite. This was a long and complex rite in the old liturgy, still in the 7th century. The bread was broken by several celebrants. Today there is usually only one big host that is broken. The wines that the people and the bishop had brought were mixed. A symbolic leftover is the mingling of a piece of bread with the wine.

Communion can and should be received under both species, which is also very common in Norway, apart from the big parishes. But already the old church acknowledged that it can be sufficient to receive communion under only one species, for example at the time when people took home consecrated bread for use during the week, or when sick people only could receive wine. It was mainly for practical reasons that it became common only to distribute the bread.

There should be some time for silent prayer after communion before the priest prays the final prayer on behalf of everyone. So follows the blessing and the sending (mission). The Christians are sent out into the world they live in to sanctify the world and to proclaim the Lord’s Good News.